Mesopotamia and Egypt

In Mesopotamia, Sumerians began settled life in Neolithic period (7000-3000 BCE). The most important invention of Sumerians was writing. Writing allowed them to record their pasts and achievements which made the advancement of civilization in this region easier. Writing helped them develop methods for communication. Cuneiform (drawing pictures of objects) and Ideograms (signs understood to represent ideas) are few of the innovations driven by development of writing. Scribal Schools were established at around 2500 BCE for males of rich families. Sumerians also made advancements in mathematics and medicines. They were polytheists. “Epic of Gilgamesh", an epic poem produced by Sumerians, narrates about Gilgamesh (the king of Uruk) and his search for eternity. Sumerians society was divided into four groups namely nobles, clients, commoners, and slaves, and was patriarchal. In around 2331 BCE Sumer was conquered by Sargon who ultimately was conquered by Hammurabi, with the new capital being Babylon. Hammurabi established law code which dealt mostly with agriculture and marriage and family.

Egypt, land of pharaoh, is known for the pyramids and its prosperous civilization. Egypt is called the “gift of the Nile", because the Nile had big impact in Egyptian life and society and its development. Due to the abundancy of natural resources, the most important being water, found around Nile made Egypt self-sufficient. Pyramids, regarded to be the reflection of Egyptian society, are estimated to have been built in around 2500 BCE. They were thought to be the stairway to heaven, and used as the burial place of the pharaohs of the old kingdom. Egyptian history was divided by dynasties. The Old Kingdom (2660-2180) saw political unification and construction of pyramids. These people were polytheistic. Horus was regarded as the “lord of the sky" and as the symbol of divine kingship. People believed in after-life, and had Osiris, the god who decided if someone was to have afterlife or not. Pharaoh was considered as Horus, the divine god, in human form. He exercised justice and order. The Middle Kingdom (2080-1640 BCE) saw political stability, advancement in agriculture, and invasion of The Hyksos towards the end of it. The New Kingdom (1570-1075 BCE) was characterized by wealth, imperialism, and widespread slavery. Akhenaten, one of the pharaoh of this period, believed in the sun-god Aton as the only god, and tried to suppress the worship of other gods by Egyptians who were polytheistic.

Greek Civilization

The Greek culture is regarded as the source of all other western civilization development. Their civilization described the world in logical terms. They are source of development of Science and Philosophy. The history of Greek Civilization can be divided into two main periods: Hellenic (early to third century BCE) and Hellenistic (third century BCE to first century BCE).

The Greek land was called Hellas which was rugged terrain. Due to such type of geography Greek life was politically divided, and no central government was formed. The earliest known Greek Settlers are Minoan (3500 BCE) and Mycenaean (1500) BCE. The primary life of these people involved farming and trading. They had hierarchical society where King was the head, and then after were traders and farmers. They traded with Egypt and other near east countries. In between 1300 and 1000 BCE these state involved in a war which led Greece to the state of poverty and disruption known as “Dark Age." During this period of time, Greek city state developed into Polis, which was the basic political and institutional unit of Greece. Polis was fundamental to Greek’s physical, religious and political life. Independent Polis could be governed in multiple ways. Monarchy was the rule of one man, Oligarchy meant the rule of few, tyranny was the rule by a man who had seized power by extra legal means, and democracy meant rule of the people. This independence of Polis led to the concept of federalism.

The next era in Greek civilization is the Archaic Age. This era saw the expansion of Greece to Far East as the Black sea and far west as Atlantic Ocean. Such Greek colonization led all these places to adopt Greek culture later. The other development of Archaic Age was the emergence of Athens and Sparta. Spartan period can be described as the time of military training in Greece. Family life was second to Polis military defense. All the citizens had to involve in the training while the women were free and encouraged to adopt healthy life for the bearing of children. Athens, on the other hand was facing the time of turmoil due to the aristocrats who seized small landowners for slavery. Cleisthenes brought democracy in Athens, and all full citizens enjoyed sovereignty.

The classical period (500- 338 BCE) saw the most important achievements of Greek history in politics, philosophy and art. In the deadly Conflicts (499 – 404 BCE), Greeks defeated Persians at the decisive battle of Salamis and Platea. In 431 BCE, Greeks destroyed themselves in a war between Athens and Sparta called Peloponnesian War. This time also saw the peak developments in arts and drama. Acropolis was made the epitome of Greek Arts and Spirit. Dramatist such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides flourished drama in this period. Athenians lived a simple life where men worked as craftsman, potter, bronze smith, or tanner, and women managed households and religious festivals. Women were regarded inferior to men. Greek religion had no sacred book and no organized creed. Zeus, Apollo and Athena were the few gods Greeks worshipped. Philosopher’s such as Thales, Heraclitus, and Hippocrates gave thoughts about the element of universe and also searched for natural medicine. The most popular philosophers of Classical Greek Age were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. They gave thoughts about knowledge and universe. In between 404 to 323 BCE, Greece went from being an Independent Polis to Monarchical system. Philip II, and later his son Alexander, started monarchy by conquering Greece from Athenians. Alexander the Great, won three major battles before he died in 323 BCE.

Alexander’s conquest created unity in Greece due to which Hellenistic period saw sharing of Greek culture with near eastern cultures. Hellenistic cities were comparable to modern cities where the power was within the king. Economy and Trade prospered at this time. Their eastward stretch created market for gold, silver, stone, oil, tea, and silk among Greeks and eastern countries. In this process, they also shared information and exchanged language. Religion was spread out of Greece to Near East. They developed mystery religion. Philosophies such as Epicureanism and Stoicism flourished in this period. Heliocentric theory by Aristotle proved to be the greatest scientific theory of the period. Archimedes was another inventor who developed hydrostatic principle.

Roman Civilization

Roman history falls under two categories- the republic and the empire. At around 750 BCE, Italy was first accompanied by Etruscans. These people developed rich cultural life and started the trade of natural products like Iron. This led as the foundation for civilization in this region. Etruscans developed the road work for the Italy. They are important part of Roman civilization because they laid cultural foundation in Italy. Rome was found in around 8th century BCE. They adapted Etruscan’s lifestyle and alphabet. On the foundation made by Etruscan, Rome developed its cities and started trade with Greek.

Roughly after 509 BCE, Romans conquered Etruscans and established republic. After a century, Romans drove Etruscans completely out of the Latium. At around 390 BCE, Romans built strong military power and won the war against all of Italy. They spread their religion and shared citizenship with others without the requirement of Franchise. Romans built vast road network for trade and communication with others.

The Roman Republic was based on senate and the people where there was shared government and unwritten constitution. Society was divided into Patricians, the wealthy people who dominated the affairs of state and legal procedures, and Plebeians, the free citizens who were artisans, farmers and urban dwellers. The greatest accomplishment of Roman Republic was senate which brought stability in Rome. They developed law of equity and natural law.

Plebeians started nonviolent conflict with Patricians to gain social equality. They started to boycott their power and refused to serve in the army. This led Patricians to allow Plebeians the right which were suppressed before. Plebeians could marry Patricians and elect their own officials and consulships. This struggle had made Rome stronger and united than before.

After the Republic was settled, Romans went on their way to expand its territory. They started series of wars, and conquered the Mediterranean. This victory brought them a lot of wealth and power and made them the ruler of the world. This time period in the Roman history is known as pax Romana which translates to Roman peace. The leaders returned home after the series of wars of conquest to find political problems in Rome. Wealthy people were forcefully buying land from poor people. This started civil war between the leaders and wealthy people of Rome. This war ultimately destroyed Roman Republic. In 59 BCE, Julius Caesar, a noble family general, defeated other opponents using military power and made himself a dictator. He started to use his power to bring basic reforms and stability in Rome. In 44 BCE, Caesar was murdered and the war started again. His nephew Augustus made alliance with Marc Antony and Lepidus and defeated Caesar’s murderer. Later in 31 BCE, Augustus defeated Antony and other opponents and ended the civil war. The time after the end of the age of civil war was called Pax Romana. From around 29-23 BCE, Augustus started to re-construct the damage of the war. He rebuild the constitution and tried to restore the republic but failed and instead created a constitutional monarchy. He expanded into northern and western Europe where he completed the conquest of Spain. Rome again became prosperous with forests, towns, trade and strong law.

The civil war had brought turmoil in Judaea, where Jewish leader used to live. In this area, Jesus of Nazareth (3 BCE - 29 CE) was born. His teachings and religious doctrines were the most important part of his life in the history. Early people had different views about the life and teaching of Jesus. One of the most important teachings of Jesus was about the eternal happiness in a life after death. Fearing about the danger of Jesus being a long awaited Messiah, he was crucified by Pilate. The teaching of Jesus was immortal and it helped to establish Christianity in Rome. People started to gather in assemblies and discuss about the message of Jesus life. Paul of Tarsus was the first universal message of Christianity who is regarded as the most important factor in the spread of Jesus’ teaching. Many people were converting into Christians because of the appeal of the Christianity. Early converts were wealthier women and men. Christianity was so appealing because of its connection to salvation and life after death. It is believed that Jesus had defeated death, and his followers would be rewarded to eternal life after death with all the sins forgiven. To this belief, Christian followers all over the world became active in spreading the word of Christ.

After Augustus’s death, a series of dynasty ruled Rome. In the first century, Rome entered in the period of stability. The Julio-Claudians provided peace and prosperity in Rome. This era in the Roman history is known as the Golden Period. Vespasian (9-79 CE) set up the Flavian Dynasty who repaired the damage of civil war and established five good emperors. This era saw full grown prosperity in Italy. Rome was made a strong city with large number of people residing in it. It was made one of the most attractive cities in the whole Europe. There was growth in business, trade and relationship with other countries. Growth of industries made Italy economically stronger. In the meantime, Romans were expanding to Central Asia towards Iran and China. The trade was exchanged among Romans and Chinese.

During third century BCE, after the era of five good emperors, Romans were attacked by barbarians. This, again, led Roman to stress and turmoil. Cities and economy started to shatter in Rome. It was only after 3rd century the emperor Diocletian ended the period of distress. He reformed the empire and divided it into eastern and western half. Diocletian’s political reforms were a great steps in Roman history. Western part was captured by Barbarians and eastern by Byzantine Empire. This time period again saw economic hardship. Christianity flourished even more in this period. Christianity was made official religion of Roman Empire in 380 BCE after which Constantine built the new capital, Constantinople. Government evolved from republic to monarchy of the Christian. This period saw the development of spiritual, intellectual, and political life that led to the development of other Eurasian civilization.

Europe and Western Asia

The decline of the Roman Empire is the beginning of early middle ages. Although the Western Roman Empire completely fell down, the eastern Roman Empire or the Byzantine Empire continued in the east. The Byzantine Empire preserved the culture, ideas and institution of old Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire survived series of attacks from Huns and Slave, Avars, and Arabs. Constantinople was the capital and main trade center of the state. The city was best located to defend war and to continue trade. Persians were at constant war with the Byzantine but never tasted a victory. The emperor Justinian preserved the Roman law, organized and filtered it and developed The Code out of it. He tried to maintain order and developed corpus juris civilis, which became the foundation of law for many European countries. Byzantines were rich in intellectual life as they focused on education, mathematics, sciences and most importantly medicine. Despite of their progress in medicine, Byzantine could not content the deadly plague which took the life of many people.

Constantinople developed as the new capital and control center of the Roman Empire. It was the largest city by population in Europe and West Asia. Constantinople was the trade city of early middle age. Spices, jewelry, silks, and luxury goods from India and China came to Constantinople through water way. Byzantine gold coin was the main currency of international trade. Although the city progressed in trade, it couldn’t establish a constant political stability. It was rules by governors, bureaucracy, and imperial army. Taxation was heavy and only royal families were favored in societies. Women were kept separate from men in the family and marriage was arranged by the family.

Multiple factors in Europe during early middle ages enabled Christian church to expand and thrive. The most important being the able administrators and creative thinkers in Europe. Church had become an important political, economic, spiritual, and cultural force in Europe. Pope and Patriarch were the leading officials of Church in Europe. Beliefs that held contradictory to Christianity were banned. Conflicts resulted from the destruction of Christian images in Byzantine empire were called iconoclastic controversy. Christianity developed monasticism and got spread as a city religion. In 11^th century, church split into two branches: Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic. The former one was based in Constantinople and the later one in Rome. Christian thinkers converted many barbarians into Christians by adapting Greco-Roman ideas to Christian theology. Women were the earliest and most faithful converts. Early medieval kings favored church to secure their rule and supply educated administrators to help run kingdoms. Saint life was very popular in this period. Monks used to live in monasteries which was the centers of education and literacy. Saints were the people who performed miracles and were thought of having special connection to God. Saint Augustine wrote “Confession" to discuss ideas of free will, ethics and self-knowledge. This shaped the structure of western Church.

In 481, Frankish ruler Clovis founded a dynasty called Merovingian. It is derived from the name of legendary chieftain Merovech. Merovingian’s built monasteries, churches and places and spread Christianity throughout Western Europe. In 8^th century, an aristocratic Charles Martel rose to the power. He dominated Frankish kingdom and established the Carolingian dynasty. This dynasty was named to protect the papacy and to make pope and bishops the makers of king. The greatest leader of this dynasty was Charlemagne.

Charlemagne was a military general and a great leader. He is the first ruler of Holy Roman Empire that lasted for more than 700 years. He built on military and diplomatic foundations of his ancestors, and divided all his kingdoms into counties. He most important legacy is his efforts in learning and ideas. He ordered the standardization of Latin, textbooks, manuals for preaching, schools for clergy and people, and new form of handwriting.

The Islamic World

At around 6^th century, there was a presence of Kaba, a temple containing a black stone. It was believed to be the dwelling place of god. This attracted pilgrimage from all around the world, which made Mecca a trade center of western Arabia. Arab people were joined to each other by the only economic source of income – agriculture. The different tribal groups in Arab were bound together by the political genius of Muhammad. Muhammad is believed to be born in 570 in Arabian city of Mecca. He was raised around a diverse religious influences of Christian, Jewish, and local Arabs. At about the age of forty, Muhammad saw himself as the final messenger of one God revealed in Hebrew Bible and New Testament. After his death, his followers organized the revelations and published Quran. This is regarded as the Holy book of Islam. The life, sayings and deeds of Muhammed are recorded in Sunna.

The strict Islam faith is monotheistic which submission of own self to god. Muhammad was a genius religious teacher because he gave Arabs a unique identity. The main belief of Islam is that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is Allah’s Prophet. Quran states the five pillars of Islam. The first is Shahada which is profession of faith in Allah as sole deity and Muhammad as final messenger. The second is Salat which is the ritual prayer five times daily while prostrated in direction of Mecca - customarily solitary, but communal on Fridays at noon. The third one is Zakat which means to give alms to the Muslim poor. The fourth is Ramadan which mean fasting and praying during the sacred month of Ramadan. The last one is Hajj which means pilgrimage to be made by every Muslim at least once in a lifetime.

The growth of Islam was gradual and happened only after the death of the prophet. Islam was spread over Iberian heartlands to northern India. They established cities wherever they went and the Islam soldiers remained together in those garrison cities. This helped Islam expand all over east and west. After the death of Muhammad, there was a power struggle between his Caliphs.

The Muslims turned west and started the process of Islamicization. In 634, their armies conquered Mesopotamia and Palestine and Damascus, capital city of Syria, a year later. In 644, they conquered all of Egypt and Persia and moved to North Africa. Within a span of 300 years, they conquered Spain, Portugal, Italy, and India. Bagdad was the largest trade city of that time. Most of the Roman Christian world was under Islamic rule in a century after Muhammad’s death. As time passed, most of the formerly Christian and pagan societies became Islamic. Tax was levied on non-Muslims under Islamic rule and slavery was restricted to non- Muslims. Islam succeeded as a result of Islamic rulers who encouraged literature, science and philosophy. Also because of the rulers who were less oppressed and more humane.

After the death of Muhammad, there was a rise of Sufi tradition. Some Muslims wore plain blue wool clothing and had absolute trust in Allah. The most famous Sufi theologian Abu Hamid defined four major Sufism. First, islam- submission to god, second, iman- faith in god and his prophet, third, ihsan- serving god as if one were seeing him all the time, and fouth, ishraq- illumination of the soul.

Europe in Middle Age

Medieval rulers tried to overcome internal divisions and external threats. They worked to create more stable territories. When Charlemagne’s empire ended there was a large decentralization of power at local levels. Due to the internal civil war and external invasion by Vikings the royal authority was weakened. This led to increase in violence and lawless situation. Poor and weak people started to turn towards rich and strong people for protection. This led to the development of Feudalism in Europe. It is a political system which defines the relationship between rich and poor, kings and vassals, lords and knights, and strong and serf. In this process, a small piece of land called fief is given by a lord in return for a vassal’s military service and oath of loyalty. The poor serf paid Tithe- tax for the land that they worked on. Many farmers and peasants turned into serf meaning they lost all their freedom to lord and became permanently bound to work on the land of lord. They were unable to leave it without the permission of lord. It is said that by the year 800, almost sixty percent of the people of Europe had be reduced to serfdom. There was a constant invasion from Vikings at around 800 in Europe. They had already brought Britain under their control. Feudalism got chance to prosper due to the attacking of Viking, Magyar, and Muslims. After a long period of political instability, European kings, at around 11^th century, started to unify which showed the beginning to political stability in western Europe. Duke William was one of the English Kings who tried to bring stability in England. Henry II developed and extended a common law which was accepted by the entire country. In 1215, the barons revolted against King John of England and forced him to attach his seal to Magna Carta which tells that king is subject to the law.

In 11^th century, Monasteries were remodeled and religious order were formed. Christianity expanded up to Europe’s northern and eastern regions. Pope Leo IX began serious efforts to reform at papal. War of Investitures started in between Pope Gregory VII and Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV.

In late eleventh and early twelfth century crusades war began for the recovery of the Holy land from the Muslims. Pope believed that crusade would bring a reunion of the two churches. In 1095, Pope Urban II declared war against Muslims. Thousands of people joined in the crusaded which made it successful at the first attempt and captured Jerusalem in 1099. Due to the decreased enthusiasm in later attempts, crusades did not accomplish much later. Crusades brought military failure but also many other positive effects like spreading of culture, goods, scientific knowledge and economic growth.

New ideas and culture emerged as a result of Crusades. New towns and cities and manors were formed and new thinkers and writers showed their talent. In this era, free and serf peasants lived in a manor. It was the basic unit of medieval rural organization and the center of rural life. Women were responsible for household management and family properties. Medieval cities were turned into markets and hence trade flourished in the era. It led to commercial revolution in Europe that transformed the economic structure of Europe, beginning in the eleventh century, from a rural, manorial society to a more complex mercantile society. Along with the first secular states, Universities develop in the thirteenth century. Literature and Architecture also flourished in this period.

Later middle age is characterized by the crisis due to black death. A devastating worldwide pandemic in 14^th century starting in Europe killed an estimate of 34 million people. The disease called Bubonic Plague which spread by fleas and rats caused hemorrhages under the skin, and painful lymph node swellings. Most victims of the plague died within four to seven days after the infection. This massive crisis caused depopulation and change in social structure of Europe, and weakened the influence of church.

Europe in Renaissance and Reformation

Renaissance, meaning the glory of past has been reborn, is derived from the French version of the same word. Renaissance happened at different times in different part of Europe. From art in Italy to Shakespeare’s plays and poetry and literature in England fall in Renaissance period. After the dark days of plague and war in middle ages, the survivors wanted to celebrate life by bringing back the culture of classical Greece and Rome. This led to development of new styles of art and literature. It also focused on the importance of the individual. Northern Italian cities were at advantage due to the increase in trade due to Crusades. This was an ideal foundation for the advancement of Intellectual development in Italy. Survivors of the crusades and the black death demanded increase in the wages. Due to wars and international attacks, Italy did not achieve complete unification until 1870.

Intellectual movement was slowly progressing during Renaissance. Petrarch and other poets, writers evolved and portrait the culture of ancient past in their art. New learning called Humanism started which was all about realizing human potential. People started studying the classics to understand the nature of human. They emphasized in the importance of the individual. Individualism helped to fully develop one’ s special capabilities. To prosper education, they opened schools and universities. The concept of Secularism was developed. This concept concerned with the material world instead of eternal world.

The single most important thing that happened in the Renaissance period was the invention of printing press with movable metal type. Estimated 8-20 million books were printed in Europe before 16^th century due to this invention.

Renaissance period is known for its great revolution in arts. Realistic style was adopted in the art of this period. Leonardo da Vinci is known for his painting of Mona Lisa and the last Supper. He is the mostly known as a painter, sculptor, inventor, and scientist of this period. Michelangelo is another known Sculptor, poet and architect. He is known for his realistic style to portray human body such as statue of David and Sistine Chapel. Raphael learned from Michelangelo and Leonardo and painted them his art. Anguissola and Gentileschi are the famous women painters of Renaissance period.

Social Hierarchies was prevalent in Renaissance period. People were divided on the basic of education, race, class and gender. Division between educated and uneducated, between the ethnic and religious group, between working and upper class, and between male and female were just few of the many social hierarchies of Renaissance.

Renaissance writers and artists moved to Northern Europe. They took their ideas with them. da Vinci retired in France painting for the king. Northern European called Christian Humanist wanted to reform the society by encouraging people to live a Christian life, promoted the education of women, and tried to show a better model of society. Queen Elizabeth of England (1558-1603) was a very well educated queen who could speak French, Italian, Latin, Greek, and wrote poetry and music. She is believed to be a huge supporter of art and literature.

The spread of Protestant Reformation to reform the church came to England where the cause for the reform was economic as well as religious. Henry VIII has a personal reason for breaking with Rome. He had a desire for a new wife. His personal matter of divorce with his wife mixed with politics made a complete mess. He wanted to have a male child for the continuation of his legacy. His first two wives were unable to produce a male child until his third wife Jane Seymour gave him the desired son. Despite of the male child, Henry went on to marry three more wives.

Age of Exploration and Imperialism

Renaissance period brought a lot of progress in the life of people of the world. Knowledge and learning reached its peak height during this period. Art and attitude of human changed in this period. This opened up the mind of people of the world to explore more. The main motive of the people was to expand by searching new places and trade centers. Europeans and Africans were searching for a quicker way to Asia. Due to the Crusades period and travels of Marco Polo, interest in the Asian goods increased. Travel routes to India and China were being explored at this time. Chinese were known for their small inventions in technical devices whereas Indian goods were known of high quality. Christianity, on the other hand, was being flourished outside of Europe. Christopher Columbus accidently found America while he was searching for better access to Southeast Asia. His voyage is considered as a turning point in history. In a short period of time, South and North America joined together to the rest of the world and emerged as a New Land. The era of globalization began as European started to dominate trading networks of the world. The exchange of culture and lifestyle started to occur in different parts of the world, and this age of discovery helped in the foundation of today’s modern world. Vasco da Gama discovered an all water route from Europe to India. His route circumvented Africa from the western, southern, and eastern part. This route was used for trade between India and Europe. Ferdinand Magellan was a person who was credited with circumnavigating the world. He circumnavigated the globe from east to west in between 1519 and 1522. Hernando Cortés expanded ‘The Americas’ by conquering the Aztec Empire in Mexico in 1519. Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire in Peru in 1833. Marco Polo is credited for Travelling to China and bringing back stories and goods to Europe. His travels are recorded in Livres des merveilles du monde, a book that introduced Europeans to Central Asia and China. In between 1500s to 1800s, Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade occurred between Africa and the new land of the Americas. The main cause of the Slave Trade was the European demand of cheap labor for work in The Americas.

The New World showed promise in terms of agriculture and economy. The native people of America did not survive the labor work that European wanted. The slave trade had many effects in the western world. It encouraged African warfare where the tribes went to war with other tribes to obtain slaves to trade for guns. It also disrupted African culture by creating a legacy of violence, bitterness and social upheaval. America became the melting pot for diffusion of cultures brought by slaves of Africa. This slavery created prejudice against Africans. One of the main features of the era of Globalization was Imperialism. In this political system, one country dominated over the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or region. The main causes for Imperialism were the need for raw materials created by Industrial Revolution and desire for place to invest excess capital. The drive to spread Christianity which was regarded as the White Man’s Burden was another cause of this political system. There was a competitive drive to gain control of an area. Spanish controlled Latin America which is known as old imperialism. India was ruled by British for a long time before Mahatma Gandhi freed India from the British Imperialism. Due to this political system, people with common backgrounds separated. At many places, natural resources were exploited and native cultures were damaged which caused to promote racism. Family life was disrupted in many parts of the world due to western vices and diseases. Not only Imperialism had negative effects, but also positive effects. There was development going on all around the world. Roads, railways and bridges were built in massive numbers. Medical care and Education improved which led to increase life expectancy of the people of the world. Also, industrialization started in Europe and America and improved the standard of living.